Check
out the real FIA regulations at the very end of the site.
REGULATIONS
Clearly, we can't
impose a rule on everything. We can't penalize every single mistake.
Trying to do so would create racing that consists primarily of contempt,
ill will, and bickering over a hundred-page manual of very specific
rules. None of us want a league that limits our desires for competition,
and has all the fun factor stripped away by rules, regulations, and limitations
on creative racing strategy. By the same token, we must impose certain
restrictions on ourselves as drivers, in order to adhere to some basic
principles for clean driving, and greatly reduce the potential of
frustrating problems that we would have to endure, and the fewer penalty
points that will need to be handed out from resulting accidents.
It is the intent of
this TOCA2 League to provide an environment for developing competitive
skills, mutual respect, and lasting online friendships, that would enable
any new drivers to gain the experience necessary, to feel confident of
their abilities in any online racing league, and, to provide an
environment for the veteran online driver to showcase his skills, and
hopefully pass along to others, the knowledge he has gained from his
online experience.
The
following Rules have been put in place to ensure that we all, as drivers
in this League, are aware of what is expected of us, and each other.
HAVE
FUN!
The most important rule is for our members to have fun, we are all here
to have a stress free, enjoyable racing experience with other online
drivers with the same interests "TOCA SIM RACING"!
MAINTAIN
A SPORTSMAN LIKE MANNER!
As Members, we are to conduct ourselves in a sportsmanlike manner at all
times while engaging in online racing events, that also includes keeping
the swearing down.
CHEATS
WILL NOT BE TOLERATED!
Whether by on the track actions or by cheat codes or game shark codes as
to gain an unfair advantage. Members caught cheating will be permanently
removed.
PENALTIES
The host shall clearly indicate to all drivers, before
the race starts, what penalties he is implementing. Penalties are
either a Pass Penalty or a Pit Penalty.
Pass Penalties: (Where the driver at
fault waits (safely off the track or to the side) until the “victim” of
his act has passed him)
1) For unsafe or diving passes where contact is made causing
damage and/or the driver being passed is forced off his line and/or off
of the track
2) If there is contact and no damage
but the leading car is forced off his line and/or off the track
3) There will be no penalty awarded if there is minor
contact with no damage and the leading car does not get
thrown off the track nor lose any race positions.
4) If there is contact and mild damage (yellow
damage), and the race is less than 7 laps long.
Pit Penalty: A drive through
penalty where the driver must enter the pit lane (same lap where the
incident occurred) and re-join the race.
5) If there is contact and there is damage, and the
race is more than 7 laps long.
6) If there is contact and there is severe damage
(orange or red)
Domino effect penalty
: When a driver, by his own fault, puts into action an incident
resulting in more then one other driver in front of himself getting
damaged and/or losing a position. All other drivers included in the
incident will not be at fault and will not be penalized. The driver
at fault will be penalized a pass penalty or pit penalty depending on
length of the race.
CONTACT
Contact on all open wheeled vehicles
(American 1000, Formula Ford, F1) will not be tolerated and should be
avoided at all cost.
On all closed wheeled
vehicles MINOR contact that does not result
in a penalty will be tolerated.
In TOCA2 sometimes a following
driver will not feel a minor contact but the leading driver will, if this
contact results in the leading vehicle to lose his line and/or his
position, he will radio to the behind driver (now in the lead as a
result) a pass penalty, also, a rolling stop penalty will be self
administered.
PASSING / BLOCKING!
The passing rules are an aid to “help” determine a go
or no go in passing. Pass as you see fit, however, for protest
purposes, Administration will use this rule along with other variables to
determine judgment in the event of a protest.
(a). Passing (general).
It is the duty of the overtaking driver to safely
initiate and carryout a pass on the cars ahead of him and should radio
by headset to warn the ahead driver of his position. The driver being
overtaken should be aware that a car is attempting to overtake him, and
give room, (hold his line), to the overtaking driver. Once a safe pass
has been initiated, it is the responsibility of the Passing driver to
ensure that the pass is completed without incident and will be held
accountable if it is not.
(b). Blocking
"Blocking" will not be allowed! Changing
your line more than once in an obvious
attempt to prevent a trailing car from passing, may be construed as
blocking.
ACCIDENTS
Because racing is so intense and
competitive with everyone pushing the limits, there will be
accidents.
An accident is usually caused by a leading
vehicle losing control of his vehicle (with no interference by a behind
driver) and causing an incident with a behind driver but
not with a leading driver. For example: if the leading
driver accelerates out of a corner too fast and spins out, causing the
behind driver to hit him, neither drivers will be penalized, even if
damage occurs.
Of course if a member becomes
a huge accident liability every time he races, his membership may be at
risk.
POINTS (Season only)
Points will be awarded to drivers using the TOCA points system depending
on their finish in a race.
HOSTING/PARTICIPATING IN ONLINE GAMES
All online League games will be password
protected.
A member will NEVER give out the room
passwords to a non-member, even if it is a friend. Why? Because all
league members/participants must know all the regulations in order to be on
the same level of racing and understanding, if not there is no point in
having an organized league.
All League games will bear
the name “CSL Racing”, if it is a season then add an S: “CSL RacingS” and
if there are more then one online league games at a time add a number at
the end: “CSL Racing2”.
To gain access to the
password for all online league games, go to:
http://www.cybersportsleague.net/forums/
and login to the racing forum.
Never
run into the back of someone in front of you
This is probably one of the silliest things one driver
can do to another. There’s few excuses here. If you are behind then you have the
responsibility to drive in a manner that will not lead to you running
into a car ahead. It doesn't matter if you're faster, think you have the
right to be let by, are more talented, or think that all slower drivers
should not hold up faster drivers. If you're behind someone then that's
your tough luck. You have to earn your pass the same as anyone. However
frustrated you may be, or whatever, it is your responsibility
not to run into the car in front of you. Even if their braking zones
occur earlier than yours would normally, then tough luck. You have to
anticipate these possibilities and drive accordingly.
If you've tried everything, braking, gearing down,
changing line, etc., but can see you're still going to collide with a car
ahead, then you should drive your own car off the track, crashing
yourself out of the race if necessary, if that's what it takes to avoid
such a contact.
The in-front driver must not do malicious braking of
course. I.e. Deliberately slowing down inappropriately to rattle a
following driver. They are required to drive with all haste and due
propriety. But while doing so within their limits they are entitled not
to have to worry about whether a following driver will run into them.
Being able to follow another driver without running
into then is something you have to learn to do. It often takes keen
judgment and many times is not easy. You want to be as close as possible,
to snatch a pass if a chance comes along, but you need to be far enough
away to respond to the ahead driver's maneuvers, evasively sometimes. It
does take practice and it is a skill. But its an essential skill for
successful enjoyable online racing. You can practice with friends, in
non-serious races, or with the AI cars offline. Offline, pick a car
that's slower than you and try to hang on their tail for 10 laps or so
without passing. You may surprise yourself at how much your skill in this
area needs to be improved.
CORNER RIGHTS (VERY IMPORTANT!!!)
If you watch the odd few TOCA2 drivers in action you
might think the rule for corner rights goes something like, "
Whatever piece of ground I can barge my way into I have the right to
". Well, ... not so. There is actually an etiquette for corner
rights. Its not just for TOCA2, or racing sims, but is basically the same
for every level of real-world motor racing - from Formula Ford to Formula
1 and everything in between. " What ! ", you say. " You
mean I don't have the right to throw my car into any gap I see ? ".
Actually no, you don't - and if you raced in any real-world competition
the way you may race in TOCA2, instead of being hailed as a motor racing
genius you may find yourself banned from even the lowest levels of the
sport. Some of the everyday things you see in TOCA2 simply aren't
tolerated where real cars are damaged, real money is the cost of repair,
and real lives are at risk.
In brief, the concept is, you must
establish substantial overlap with the car ahead before a corner's
turn-in point to have the right for room to be left for you by the ahead
driver. Substantial overlap means at least that the front of your car is
up to say the driver's position in the ahead car - and that's at the very
least. You probably should have more in many circumstances. The ahead
driver has ever right to be fully committed to the racing line of his
choice without any interference if there was no overlap before he turned
in.
If sufficient overlap is established before the turn-in
point, then the behind driver has the right to room. The ahead
driver can still battle for the place of course but must do so from a
wider-out position, leaving room for the behind driver.
|
You can see here why
overlap established after the turn-in point isn't really valid and
therefore isn't honored in car racing rules. Its actually false overlap
that's created by the turning movements of the cars. Its not due to one
being faster than the other or one out-braking the other. In positions 1, 2, and 3, below, you can see that the Green Car
has no overlap at all if you consider the straight ahead direction -
shown by the blue lines. But if you take a perpendicular from the
attitude of the cars, shown by the red lines, there is some overlap at
position 2 and substantial overlap at
position 3. This overlap is entirely
false of course as the Lotus here hasn't actually out-braked or
out-sped the Blue Car by any amount what-so-ever - as I hope you can
see form this diagram. Unfortunately many drivers think that if they do
this they are some kind of out-braking genius, when in fact they are
not out-preforming the other driver at all. Its a geometric illusion
that has nothing to do with a driver's ability or performance. If they
could really out-brake the other, they would have made some overlap
before the turn-in point, not after it.
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|
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1 Before the
turn-in point there's no overlap - therefore the Green Car has no right
to room or to interfere with the Blue Car’s normal racing line in any
way.
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2 But, as often
happens, the Green Car sees this empty zone along the inside and thinks
they can zoom up into it, probably believing this to be the move of a
talented racing genius.
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3 Its possible to
get apparent overlap after the turn-in point. The point is you
shouldn't.
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4 The Green Car
may actually achieve their objective, forcing the Blue Car out wide,
who may actually not press the issue for the sake of not crashing - if
they can.
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5 But, if the Blue
Car doesn't back away, and holds their line, as they're entitled to do,
this is what happens as often as not.
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|
The
issue is that the Blue Car has the right to be fully committed to the
racing line. In this case, the entire inside area ought to have been a
no-go zone for the Green Car, who should have tucked in behind and
followed the Blue Car around. Of course, late braking barge drivers
often end up in the hay bails, hopefully without taking you with them.
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You
may wonder how this reconciles with the above regarding leaving room for
cars that disappear up your inside from your rear view. Well ... If a
behind car doesn't have overlap before the turn-in point then they
shouldn't disappear up your inside line but stay tucked in behind you. If
they want to disappear up your inside line then they should do so before
you reach the turn-in point. If they disappear up your inside line after
the turn-in point, then its really up to you how you play it. You may
decide to enforce your rights and risk a contact, or your may be willing
( reluctantly ) to leave room because you don't want to crash.
An
exception to this is where an ahead driver has clearly made a sufficient
error to warrant a passing move. Eg - they brake too late and wash out
wide of the apex and have to reduce speed etc. This would be a valid
passing opportunity regardless of whether there was pre-existing overlap.
However, there is still substantial reasonability on the overtaking
driver to take all necessary care.
Small
errors by the ahead driver may not be sufficient to allow a safe passing
move however. Just because the ahead drivers gets a bit out of shape at
times it doesn't give you an automatic right to room. You still have to
judge if their error provides sufficient opportunity for a safe pass to
take place.
As long
as there is genuine overlap, in general , while going through a corner
beside another car ...
The car
on the outside has the right to the outer half of the track all the way
around - right up to the exit point. They should not be squeezed
against the outside towards the exit point.
The car
on the inside has the right to the inside half of the track all the way
around - right up to the exit point. They should not be squeezed
against the inside towards the apex area.
Having
said all this, one would have to add that corner rights is not an exact
science. There are some variables. Presented here is just the basic
concept of the accepted etiquette. Even in real life, with full vision,
full sensory feedback, infinite fps and resolution, its not uncommon for
real drivers to come to grief with this - usually saying it was the other
guy's fault. With TOCA2's huge blind spots its even more hit and miss,
often literally.
Overtaking
The Non
Contested Pass
A non contested pass is simply a pass where you're happy, for whatever
reason, to let an overtaking driver go past with the least hindrance to
them as possible. Your reasons may be that you don't want to risk an
incident due to an overtaking battle, or you may be being lapped - in
which case race etiquette requires you to do what you can to expedite a
clean quick safe pass for the lapping driver. Whatever the reason, there
may be times when you want to let someone past.
To
let someone past uncontested, use your headset to warn the other driver
and drive against one side of the track and maintain that position until
they’ve passed. You need to use clear body language here. Moving from side
to side trying to stay off the racing line, for the sake of the passing
car, is the worse thing you can do. What’s important is not weather
you’re on the racing line or not, but whether you’re driving a
predictable line. Pick a side of the road to move to, usually the one
you’re nearest to at the time, then religiously stay against that side
until the car has passed. You might even try slowing a little to expedite
the pass, as sometimes a quick pass can benefit you as much as it does
the passer. But don’t slow down too abruptly of course.
The drivers doing the lapping / passing should also bear in mind that the
car you're lapping may have absolutely no knowledge of your presence
what-so-ever. Be careful. You should always announce yourself on the
headset to the ahead car before trying a pass.
The
Contested Pass
The
contested pass, or the pass done in anger, whatever you want to call it,
is arguably one of the most difficult things to do cleanly without
incident. Battling for position, passing and counter passing, wheel to
wheel racing, is also the most fun thing to do.
The
problem with close racing of any sort, contested passing included, is
largely one of what each driver in the situation can see of the other.
Most people I've raced with are fair and don't mean to cause accidents.
Most aren't reckless. Its just that there's a lot of guessing going on
about exactly where and how close you are to another driver. The TOCA2
range of vision is much less than real life. There are huge blind spots
to contend with. In fact the restricted visual range in TOCA2 is so much
a factor in close racing situations it warrants a detailed discussion in
itself. The contested pass then is all about what you can and can't see.
TOCA2 Blind Spots
A
reminder: even though this article was taken from GPL, I believe it is
very similar to TOCA2 and therefore the information should prove very
useful. Again, I have adapted and edited the article for the TOCA2
driver in mind.
Even with
the aid of the side view and the racing map, if you’re not willing
to switch to the arcade or 3rd person view (we usually don’t
have time to do it while racing…) there are huge blind spots in TOCA2.
Often, nearby cars are simply not visible to you. This is a pity to be
sure, but I suppose it’s due to limitations the program writers
themselves would love to improve on, if only current technology would
allow.
In any
case, although there's nothing we can do to improve the situation, if we
understand it thoroughly then perhaps we can work with it to the best
degree - by applying due caution and anticipation.
The
extent of the blind spots are as follows ...
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You
can see down a narrow field of view extending out directly behind you
via your rear view. Forward of this rear area your blind spots begin, (
the shadowed area in the illustration).
Your
forward vision isn't 180 degrees as you might imagine but is also
restricted to an angled area that extends out in front
of the car.
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|
|
Perhaps
one of the most significant things of which to be aware, is that your
blind spots extend out in front of your own car. I've
seen several exchanges where one guy says something like, " what
were you doing ? I was in front of you ! The corner was mine"!
Etc. Obviously unaware that you can be in front but still be unseen.
|
What's also noteworthy
is how the blind spot areas can effectively hide many nearby car
positions. The big problem of close racing in TOCA2.
|
Here
we see the problem in a nutshell. How many of the near-by cars do you
think the driver of the Green Car will see ? The answer is none. They
are all in his blind spots.
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|
|
Even
the two cars shown here well in front of the Green Car will not be in
his range of vision.
To make
maters worse, only the Blue car, in this case, can see the Green Car.
In fact, apart from the Blue Car, none of the other cars in this
scenario can see one another. Not a pleasant prospect for wheel to
wheel racing. A case of the blind racing against the blind.
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The answer to the problem of
driving very close to other cars you can't actually see is to drive with
a lot of caution, care, and respect for your fellow drivers. You have to
use your wits and anticipation. Most importantly, you must leave room
for other cars whenever you have reason to believe they might
be beside you. You can't wait to be sure they're beside you. By the time
you're sure, i.e. you can see them, its too late. In my opinion, you need
to leave room simply if you have reason to believe someone might
be beside you.
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1 Here the Red car
is coming up on the green car. Each can see the other. Neither is in
the blind spot shadow of the other. The Red car has plain forward view
of the Green and the Lotus can see the Ferrari with his rear view and
map view.
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2 The Red car here
has moved up along the inside of the Green car. Each are in the blind
spot shadow of the other. Neither can see the other. But remember that
the Green driver has just seen the Red car come forward from behind and
then disappear while heading up his inside track. He has every reason
to anticipate that the Red car might be beside him.
|
3 Shown here is
what happens all too often, as the Lotus driver moves towards the apex
and squeezes out the Red car.
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1 Note, If the
Green car wants to guard the inside line, as he's entitled to do, now
is the time to close the door and move to the inside, while the Red car
is still in his rear view and on map view.
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2 Its too late for
the Green car to guard the inside line at this stage. He's missed his
chance.
What happens next will depend on whether the Green driver leaves room
or not.
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3 The Green driver
should have left room, at least a lane width, for the Red car to
maneuver along the inside.
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Leaving room for another car means you'll not be
driving the ideal racing line. It also means you'll be driving a line you
haven't practiced and which is unfamiliar to you. All this means you'll
be slower through the given section than usual. This also means that not
only will the action of leaving room provide the opportunity for an
opponent to pass you, but it also enhances the likelihood of their
success - while you're in a slower-than-usual mode of driving. But that's
tough. Its just the way it is, and frankly its not that much a departure
from real life racing in some of these respects. All things considered,
you will still experience the best of sim racing enjoyment by always
leaving room for your opponents wherever appropriate.
Things You can do To Overcome The
Blind Spots
There are
a couple of things you can do to help get around the blind spots problem.
Each has its pros and cons.
Headset
Communication
is best, when possible use your headset to warn the driver in front of
you or in the back of you if you’ve had an accident.
The
Look-Around Views
TOCA2 has
a built in look-around facility that can be assigned to operate from the
controller or game port device buttons. When activated, the forward view
slides around to the desired direction to give you a view to the side of
the car. These views are a useful idea. No doubt they're included due to
a perceived need for some kind of enhancement to the visual range. They
can be useful but I find that the side view and the rear view to have too
much of a limited vision.
The
Arcade View (3rd person view)
The
arcade view is available at any time during real time driving. This gives
you a elevated driver view from somewhere behind the driver looking
forward. This view also includes a good portion of the side areas that
you can't see from the cockpit view.
The
arcade view can be very useful in a number of circumstances, close
quarter racing being one of them especially on the slower cars. Because
of the extended side views you can clearly see how close you are to other
nearby side-area cars and drive accordingly. I don't suggest you dive in
this mode on a continual basis and because switching views can seriously
disrupt your concentration and racing flow, but for those close moments
when you're wondering where an invisible close-by car exactly is at, a
quick toggle to the arcade view to check the scene can be very handy. You
may even stay in this mode for the duration of the close racing session.
Its superior views can be quiet tempting. Because the change to the
arcade view is instantaneous (if in hood view), as opposed to the sliding
effect of the look-around views, it can be an easier view to transit (if
you’re using the hood view) with less amount of changing-view-mode
disorientation.
Using the
arcade view at the start of a race can also be a help. I.e. To negotiate
your way through the notorious start-line to first turn chaos, or beyond.
The
downside of using the arcade view is that it is not a realistic view, and
seems to mock the entire idea of trying to simulate the experience of
real life racing. If the whole idea of sim racing is to perceive the
moment as real racing drivers do, then driving in, or even toggling to,
an arcade view seems to blow the illusion.
Another
problem is that arcade view driving requires some practice to get it
right all in itself. You probably won't be able to jump straight from
cockpit driving to arcade driving and expect the same degree of
proficiency. This can add to the amount of overall time required to get
proficient at the sim as a whole of course, and for many time is precious.
Not sure
if its right to call it a downside or not, but I suppose within the
defines of the concept of pure simulation I guess it may be. The fact is
that once you get practiced at arcade driving you may well find you can
actually driver better than when in cockpit view. You can see exactly how
close your car is to the edge of the track and use every fraction of it.
From the elevated viewpoint you can often perceive the best racing line
through corners better. You can see near-by cars much better and make better
more finely judged and executed passes and collision avoidance maneuvers.
Even when controlling slides, seeing your whole car against a large area
of road and surrounds can convey to you a better feel for what's
happening and consequently you have more and/or better input to work
with. You may find that you can control some slides that would have been
a certain crash in cockpit mode.
Once you
get arcade driving down pat, which admitably will take some practice, you
may find that you're faster, more consistent, have less offs accidents
and collisions, better starts and first corner / first lap experiences,
able to pass others easier with less risk, able to fend off and defend
against passes by others better with less risk, finish more races without
incident, and control your slides more deftly. About the only thing
against it is that its an unrealistic way to drive.
Avoid
close racing when it’s not necessary
Not
only does very close driving give you very little time to react if the
need arises, it also increases very much the likelihood of a
internet-lag-time caused collision. In TOCA2 online there is sometimes a
risk of registering a collision in close driving even without any
perceivable contact - due to internet lag, therefore if someone is lagging
a bit, give them even more room the usual. The general rule for the
careful and respectful driver would be, not to unnecessarily drive too
close to another, especially whenever there is no point. E.g. In
situations where there is no possibility of passing anyway. You're asking
for trouble if you do, even if you don't actually do anything wrong.
As a
guide, drive so you can see some road between the top of your hood and
the bottom of the ahead driver's tires. This is a much safer position
while waiting for a valid passing opportunity. You're still close enough
to make a move when and if an opportunity arises and there's at least
some time to react.
Use Clear Body
Language
If
someone is following you closely looking for a place to pass, and you
kind of drift along with ambiguous movements about the track, or you sort
of close the door but still leave the inside line half open, then you
just might unintentionally lure the following car to try a pass that's
only half on. Alternatively, if as soon as a following car gets anywhere
near your rear quarter coming up to a corner, and while they are still in
your mirrors, you make a firm and clear movement towards the inside line,
and stick there, then they will know that your intentions are to
close the door and drive the defensive inside line. Such a clear
defensive move will leave them in no doubt not to try a risky inside pass.
This is
just one case. There are others. The thing is ... Always try to convey a
clear message by your driving style so that surrounding drivers get a
very good idea about your intentions. Body language used well can be
almost as clear as having indicators on your car.
Hints and Tips
If in doubt, lift.
If
in a loss of control situation or a near loss of control one, lift your
foot off the accelerator, usually with gentle haste. In nine out of ten
situations this is the right thing to do anyway. The odd situation where
you'd keep your foot planted requires such a fine skilled touch you
probably wouldn't be successful at it anyway. Lifting to get out of
trouble is very often a safe bet. You'll be surprised at how many
'certain crash' situations you can actually drive away from if you would
only lift your foot off the accelerator. Some people are very reluctant
to lift their foot off for any reason. They're the ones up-side-down in
the sand all too often.
Practice the Other Lines Before You
Have to Use Them
If
the first time you have ever tried driving around the outside of a
certain corner is in a frantic race situation when you're racing toe to
toe with someone, then you'll be in unfamiliar territory in the middle of
a high stress precision driving situation. A bad place to be. Before a
race comes up, just try doing a few laps of the circuit hugging the
left-hand-side of the road all the way around and then do a few hugging
the right-hand-side. At the very least do 1 or 2 laps against each side
of the road. You'll be surprised at how much less likely you are to crash
while trying to hold road position if you are at least a little familiar
with how the outer and inner lines feel.
Drive, then
Race
In our racing perhaps just two priorities are required.
Drive your car, then race it. Meaning, ... The first priority is to stay
in control of your car. Only after that is done do you worry about racing
it with any near-by competitors. You often see people who left alone can
drive well enough. But once they start racing they are going into corners
so deep etc they have no chance. The obvious reality is - if you could
only take a certain corner at say 80mph when alone, you can't take it at
120mph just because you're racing someone. Don't let the sprit and thrill
of the racing moment take your attention away from your number one
priority. Drive your car, stay in control of it. Then worry about racing.
Be
careful of Details
Be
aware of broken taillights since you will have less visual warning of
when the leading driver breaks.
Also be aware that the breaking markers may disappear since they can get
hit by other drivers, therefore possibly throwing your breaking routine
out of sync.
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The 1999 FIA Formula One World Championship Sporting Regulations cover
overtaking under "incidents":
"Incident means any
occurrence or series of occurrences involving one or more drivers, or any
action by any driver, which is reported to the stewards by the race
director (or noted by the stewards and referred to the race director for
investigation) which:
- caused an avoidable
collision;
- forced a driver off the track;
- illegitimately prevented a legitimate overtaking manoeuvre by a driver;
- illegitimately impeded another driver during overtaking.
The stewards may impose a
10 second time penalty on any driver involved in an Incident."
This quite clearly bans using physical contact to overtake and
prohibits blocking a driver attempting to overtake.
Formula One drivers are also governed by the FIA International
Sporting Code which covers all motor racing events that they organise.
(ÉBAUCHE
1.2)
TOCA RACE DRIVER 2 –
LIGUE CSL
CODE DE CONDUITE DES PILOTES (SOMMAIRE)
1.
